The Kantian Theory Of Ethics And Morality Essay

The Kantian Theory Of Ethics And Morality Essay Kants theory of morality seems to function as the most feasible in determining ones duty in a moral situation. The basis for his theory is perhaps the most noble of any acting morally because doing so is morally right. His ideas, no matter how occasionally vague or overly rigid, work easily and efficiently in most situations. Some exceptions do exist, but the strength of those exceptions may be somewhat diminished by looking at the way the actual situations are presented and the way in which they are handled. But despite these exceptions, the process Kant describes of converting maxims to universal laws to test their moral permissibility serves, in general, as a useful guide to and system of ethics and morality. The Kantian Theory of Ethics hinges upon the concept of the Categorical Imperative, or the process of universalization. Kant describes taking a possible action, a maxim, and testing whether it is morally permissible for a person to act in that manner by seeing if it would be morally permissible for all people in all times to act in that same manner. Thus, Kant says that an action is morally permissible in one instance if the action is universally permissible in all instances. As human beings, we are forced to accept the inevitability of being unwillingly confronted with situations that test the strength of our morality and character. In the midst of deep moral conflict we become immensely introspective and we follow our intuition with the hopes of it guiding us towards the morally correct decision. However, how can we be sure that we have acted morally in a situation that is so morbid and perverse that our intuition is completely torn? This is the dilemma that is faced by Kant believed that the only thing of intrinsic moral worth is a good will. Kant says in his work Morality and Rationality The good will is not good because of what it affects or accomplishes or because of its adequacy to achieve someproposed end; it is good only because of its willing, i.e., it is good of itself. A maxim is the generalized rule that characterizes the motives for a persons actions. For Kant, a will that is good is one that is acting by the maxim of doing the right thing because it is right thing to do. The moral worth of an action is determined by whether or not it was acted upon out of respect for the moral law, or the Categorical Imperative. Imperatives in general imply something we ought to do however there is a distinction between categorical imperatives and hypothetical imperatives. Hypothetical imperatives are obligatory so long as we desire X. If we desire X we ought to do Y. However, categorical imperatives are not subject to conditions. The Categorical Impera tive is universally binding to all rational creatures because they are rational. Kant proposes three formulations the Categorical Imperative in his Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Moral, the Universal Law form *** Kantian ethics is a method of interpreting what one ought to do, which was devised by Immanuel Kant it is a duty-based theory and therefore, duty has a huge part to play within it. Kantian Ethics is an absolutist theory therefore suppresses any chance of exception through circumstances or outcome, but believes solely that the maxim of duty is the most important factor, if not the only factor in making a moral decision. For Kant, a moral action is not based upon feelings, inclination, or on the possibility of reward or positive outcome. Instead, a moral action is one based on a sense of this is what I ought to do. To use an example, helping an old woman across the street because you pity her is NOT a moral act, neither is it moral if you do it purely because you want to impress someone, the only way that it is a moral thing to do is if you do it out of a sense of duty because you can say to yourself I ought to help the elderly. According to Kant this is the only thing that matters when deciding whether or not to do something, because motive is the most important factor in Kantian ethics, it is possible for an action to have negative consequences while still being a moral act: mmanuelle Kant more focused on concept of moral duty and responsibility as main key characteristics of moral conscious that served as the foundation for deontological approach. He emphasized that there not separation between duty and consequences, but nevertheless there exist gap between duty and purely deontological theory. Morality is supposed to guide our actions, which it can only do if it motivates us, and that practical reasoning starts with what is good, and that the right response to what is good is to choose in accordance with it. To intend to do something bad, such as lie or kill, (even in order to bring about some good consequence) is not to order ones will in accordance with what is good. Is morality something we discover? Perhaps, if, one chooses to accept the integrity with ones personal experiences we all would share the same views. Thus, I believe that Kant argues morality and decision making must be a priori. Yet, I am still trying to wrap my head around what I am arguing. If one chooses moral actions via experience, it, neglects, the concept of consequences. I know that it was not mentioned via Kantian ethics; however, I argue that consequences should be included. Why? Because, one, I argue, looks into the consequences of their actions beforehand. That is not to say that it will stop them, yet it still crosses their minds. Again, I think that Kantian ethics brings a modern approach to the way we hold ethical principles today. However, it still seems that there are flaws and that one will still look into the consequences when thinking morally and ethically. Kants categorical imperatives are too rigid in my opinion. His view assumes that morality rests upon absolute directives, but the world is not so black and white. Many times situations do not have a well defined right and wrong and to say they do is over simplified. I do not agree with the principle of Kants categorical imperatives. The guideline states that performing a bad action to bring about a good effect is never morally acceptable but that performing a good action may be considered acceptable even if it causes a bad effect. What is considered good or bad is open to interpretation. An example on page 60 of the text says euthanasia is immoral because it essentially equates it with murder. I do not consider this murder if it is upon request of the ill patient and has the intention of relieving unbearable pain. Kants ethical theory at face value seems as though it could be effective. However it seems irresponsible to make a moral decision without factoring the outcome of your choice. It also seems bold of Kant to expect all decisions to be moral or immoral universally. The world is simply not that black and white. There are always exceptions. If the world did function as good vs. evil than Kants ideological theory in essence would work. Unfortunately the world has many more facets than that. The Kantian ethics differs from the utilitarianism theory in that it focuses more on the actions and the morality of those actions as opposed to the consequences. Kant is basically saying that the consequences dont matter as long as we act in a moral way. I dont agree with his statement that right actions depend on the least of consequences because actions, whether right or wrong usually depend on consequences because most of the times, consequences are what we associate with morals. Personally speaking, before going forward with any actions, I usually think about the consequences before anything else. I dont think about whether or not my actions are morally right. Isnt it possible to have actions that are morally right but consequences that are not? While I like the idea of applying maxims to actions, I dont think that it is very realistic because if it means that when you choose rules to live by, you have to make certain these are rules you would want the rest of the world to live by, then what would the consequences be? Or better yet, what would the need for consequences be? While I do like idea that we should treat people the way we would like to be treated or better yet as the human being we are, it could never work in todays society because even though everything would be on the same playing field, people would eventually take advantage of the rules or those who happen to live by those rules. One of the major cornerstones of Kantian ethics is the idea that it is the will of the person, not necessarily the consequences, that makes an action moral or not. If a person does something out of a sense of duty to moral law, then his actions have moral value. According to Kant, this means that if a person cares for his or her child out of the belief that caring for children is an important duty, he or she is acting ethically. If, however, a person cares for a child simply because he or she loves the child, this action is out of inclination rather than duty and not actually of moral value. Actions have consequences. We all know that. Sometimes when it comes time to face those consequences though, we do everything we can to avoid it or to hide our guilt. One of the hardest realities for some of us to learn is that our actions have consequences. Whatever we do either affects us or others, and usually both. We begin teaching our children at an early age Do not hit! and Do not bite! and a host of other Do nots! because our actions can hurt other people. We are teaching them that there are consequences to others because of our actions. We teach them to avoid fires and hot surfaces and playing in the street, because the consequences of these can be extremely hurtful to ourselves. Some, however, are slow to learn those lessons. Many, it seems, have to learn the hard way through suffering the consequences of their actions. Consider: There is a terrorist with a gun pointed at a group of innocent hostages being held by the terrorists. There is the declaration that he will kill them. Someone nearby has a gun and points it at the terrorist and shots. The would-be hero misses the target and kills one of the innocent hostages. Now is the act of the would-be hero good or bad. Is it the intention behind the act or the result of the act that makes it good or bad? If something is good is it good because of what it is or because of what it results in? This question sets out a basic question in ethical inquiry and concerning which there are two major braches or schools of thought. There are a number of ethical theories that can be categorized according to how they address this question.

Alcohol :: Alcoholism

After doing some research on alcohol I have come to the realization that alcoholism is a disease that affects millions of lives everyday. In the following essay I will discuss some things that I have learned and I will try to give a clear understanding on what steps I will need to take to make appropriate choices in the future.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I have learned that alcohol is not all fun and games. It affects many aspects in a person’s life. I learned of the affects it has on my reaction time, my nervous system, obviously my thought process, and also my reproductive system. Alcohol kills in many ways if it becomes an abused substance. It plays a major role in more than half of all automobile accidents. Drinking and driving is dangerous not only to yourself but to others to. Plus it is not worth getting caught by the police driving under the influence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Not only have I became more knowledgeable about the affects of drinking but I have learned that if I chose to drink not to take the risk of drinking on campus. West Chester has strict rules about this policy and I am now aware of such consequences of getting caught. But I had the worst of it being that I was holding the bag and that we got caught by the police. Now I have to deal with the West Chester bureau police as well, which will wind up many more things happening to me, including going to court and probably getting a hefty fine as well as my license taken away.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some good advice I might have for someone who chooses to drink on campus is â€Å"don’t†. It is not worth getting caught by the school and possibly the police. If you do choose to drink do it on safe grounds such as somebody’s house or apartment. But even then it is still possible to get caught by the guard beings that you may be too intoxicated. So the best advice I could give someone is to sleep over a friend’s house off campus somewhere and stay out of trouble with the school because in the

An Analysis of Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451

Burning Books Ray Bradbury’s novel, Fahrenheit 451 takes places in some sort of â€Å"perfect† world. In the novel people who â€Å"think† are considered outcasts and weird. Additionally, the population has almost completely removed books from their society. This can directly connect to modern American society in which, entertainment and material possessions seem to interest people more than books, and the small items in life remain unappreciated. Several people today do not enjoy reading. They have found an external source of entertainment in, television, radio, or music.Similar to the novel, today’s society has begun to abandon books. They don’t have much of a free will anymore and some may call it mind control. The society in the novel seems very similar to this because they never had a chance to express themselves or have unique personalities. Furthermore, various people do not appreciate the smaller items in life and look more interested in phy sical objects such as, money. Moreover, in Fahrenheit 451, Clarisse mentions to Montag how drivers may have not ever seen the grass or flowers, or even looked at nature.It seems like these two groups have completely removed â€Å"thinking† and â€Å"knowledge† from their lives in search of materials with â€Å"greater value. † These two societies have many similarities. Particularly, modern American society has begun placing books away and looking for other forms of entertainment. Today, individuals make it seem like money and material possessions are the most important in life. Likewise, those in Ray Bradbury’s novel appear to find more interest in Parlor walls and seashell radios instead of objects that allow more thought, such as books.

buy custom Factors that Influence Military Innovation essay

buy custom Factors that Influence Military Innovation essay Just within the scope of this particular research, the paper analyses factors other than technology that tend to impact on military innovation. The particular argument highlights various factors that are actually very important when it is a question of application of some given strategies to ensure innovation within the military force. Just to mention a few, there are the changes in a given military structure, competition among different nations and also consequences due to a war in a particular society, and this is with regard to the periods of 1st and 2nd world wars. The modern social scientists have ensured a number of that examine the exact origin of the so called disruptive innovations. However, when considering the literature as pertains to military innovations is quite vast, each and every models that is put into operation is normally taken from some two larger theoretical perspectives, the theory about balance of power and then the organizational theory. In an attempt to explore more about the military innovations, various schools may be discussed. The first that was represented by Barry Posen tries to comprehend innovation just as it is related to the key changes in the international balance of power and the existing competition between the nations. When considering this particular structural realistic perspective, Posen makes an attempt to pinpoint the most notorious external threat and civilian intervention as the most effective determinants that lead to innovation. In trying to shape up the argument that the existing competition between given nations normally has a greater explanatory power as compared to the organizational theory, Posen alleges that a states ability to innovate may be termed as its security information function. Considering that states behave rationally, in order to counter the ill-effects due to insecurity, they tend to either acquire allies or even the internal balance-by ensuring strengthened militaries. The times when the security threats go low, civilian leaders tend to be satisfied with the incremental improvement. However when the threats go high, so are the tied up incentives in way for achievement of disruptive innovation. Posen gives the Germanys Blitzkrieg developmnt during the 1930s as a good example. He suggested that civilian intervention leads to military innovation either directly or indirectly. This is through officers Posen refers to as mavericks. The mavericks normally produce civilians having the military expertise they do not have and at the same time having an insider who has the ability to steer the organization up to the given required innovation trajectory. Generally, predictions by the Posens model are that in order to ensure that there is motivation of the civilian leaders to get included either directly or indirectly using the military mavericks as the major proxies and hence force the military department to instantly change; nations must get subjected to competition between one another. Apparently when the security threats are relatively low, the civilian leaders tend to be satisfied with the incremental improvements. There was another school by Steve Rosen, which makes an attempt to comprehend innovation through the examination of variations within the military structure. Considering the organizational theory, Rosen alleges that military organizations are in a position to innovate on their own. He views the impetus for reformation as originating from within, owing to the variations within the military structure, besides positing that besides civilian intervention that is not required, also that is generally also counts. According to him, military organizations are normally stimulated by the particular variations noticeable within the environment. He however believes that the origin associated with innovation is when branches belonging to the same service vie to become their given services main security guarantor. Overlapping of their capabilities results to increased competition, and the most senior military leaders both tend to encourage cum moderating these evident internecine squabbles. It is worth noting that innovation takes its due course the moment emerging war fighting parties acquire moral and any other relevant form of support among the senior military leaders after which it is endorsed by the civilian leaders. Assertions by Rosen had it that innovations greatly require product champions-those of the senior officers who advocate constant innovative approaches to open promotion paths and welfare for other reformers. After a scrutiny of the US Navy and also the Marine Corps, Rosen asserts that mainstream senior officers in the military department mostly adopt a two-part strategy in order to ensure fostering innovation. The most prerequisite attempt is challenging of the old and crude methods of waging war and at least some other newer ways and concepts for their replacement, through the means of changing the structure with regard to the military. The other section focuses on political struggle management which is inherent in any step in the course of new concepts implementation. An implementation that can be termed as successful, Rosen posits, is prerequisite and it can be maintained through the creation of stable career paths and hence flag rank for the younger officers who prefer experimenting with the new concepts and development of not only innovative tactics but also techniques. Another proposition is that intervention from civilians can prove quite working when it is a question of promotion of innovation it at all it offers support to military leaders in their strategies to ensure new war fighting methods. Rosen differentiates this particular intervention from the civilian intervention model and the argument is that the newer concepts tend to come from within the military. Rosen also strongly disagrees with the allegations that the military mavericks are more suitable as advocates of transformation. Still it is quite important to note that special training; not just mere training of the officers could quite be effective in creating room for military innovation. Officers ought to acquire training that makes them able to deal with any given situation without specifications. It is evident of how some officers were unable to handle some situations in the course of their operation, finally exposing lack of the standard prowess in handling varied issues. This is do saddening as they ultimately lose trust even in the eyes of the public. Special training enables officers even to handle issues out of their line of operation but still they manage to work perfectly. Innovation will hence be evident in such cases(Adamsky, 2010). Buy custom Factors that Influence Military Innovation essay

Global Climate Change and Evolution

Global Climate Change and Evolution It seems like every time a new story is created by the media about science, there needs to be some sort of controversial subject or debate included. The Theory of Evolution is no stranger to controversy, especially the idea that humans evolved over time from other species. Many religious groups and others do not believe in evolution because of this conflict with their creation stories. Another controversial science topic often talked about by the news media is global climate change, or global warming. Most people do not dispute that the average temperature of the Earth is increasing every year. However, the controversy comes in when there is an assertion that human actions are causing the process to speed up. The majority of scientists believe both evolution and global climate change to be true. So how does one affect the other? Global Climate Change Before connecting the two controversial scientific subjects, it is first important to understand what both are individually. Global climate change, once called global warming, is based on the annual increase in the average global temperature. In short, the average temperature of all places on Earth increases every year. This increase in temperature seems to be causing many potential environmental issues including the melting of the polar ice caps, more extreme natural disasters like hurricanes and tornadoes, and larger areas are becoming affected by droughts. Scientists have linked the increase in temperature to an overall increase in the number of greenhouse gases in the air. Greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide, are necessary to keep some heat trapped in our atmosphere. Without some greenhouse gases, it would be too cold for life to survive on Earth. However, too many greenhouse gases can have extreme effects on the life that is present. Controversy It would be pretty hard to dispute that the average global temperature for Earth is increasing. There are numbers that prove that. However, it is still a controversial subject because many people do not believe that humans are causing global climate change to speed up as some scientists are suggesting. Many opponents of the idea claim the Earth cyclically becomes hotter and colder over long periods of time, which is true. The Earth moves in and out of ice ages over somewhat regular intervals and has since before life and long before humans came into existence. On the other hand, there is no doubt that current human lifestyles do add greenhouse gases into the air at a very high rate. Some greenhouse gases are expelled from factories into the atmosphere. Modern automobiles release many types of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, that get trapped in our atmosphere. Also, many forests are disappearing because humans are cutting them down to create more living and agriculture space. This makes a large impact on the amount of carbon dioxide in the air because trees and other plants can use carbon dioxide and produce more oxygen through the process of photosynthesis. Unfortunately, if these large, mature trees are cut down, the carbon dioxide builds up and traps more heat. The Effect on Evolution Since evolution is most simply defined as the change in species over time, how can global warming change a species? Evolution is driven through the process of natural selection. As Charles Darwin first explained, natural selection is when favorable adaptations for a given environment are chosen over the less favorable adaptations. In other words, individuals within a population that have traits that are better suited to whatever their immediate environment is will live long enough to reproduce and pass down those favorable traits and adaptations to their offspring. Eventually, the individuals that have less favorable traits for that environment will either have to move to a new, more suitable environment, or they will die out and those traits will no longer be available in the gene pool for new generations of offspring. Ideally, this would create the strongest species possible to live long and prosperous lives in any environment. Going by this definition, natural selection is dependent upon the environment. As the environment changes, the ideal traits and favorable adaptations for that area will also change. This could mean that adaptations in a population of a species that were once the best are now becoming much less favorable. This means the species will have to adapt and perhaps even undergo speciation to create a stronger set of individuals to survive. If the species cannot adapt quickly enough, they will become extinct. Polar Bears and Other Endangered Species For example, polar bears are currently on the endangered species list due to global climate change. Polar bears live in areas where there is very thick ice in the northern polar regions of Earth. They have very thick coats of fur and layers upon  layers of fat to keep warm. They rely on fish that live under the ice as a primary food source and have become skilled ice fishermen in order to survive. Unfortunately, with the melting polar ice caps, the polar bears are finding their once favorable adaptations to be obsolete and they are not adapting quickly enough. The temperatures are increasing in those areas which make the extra fur and fat on the polar bears more of a problem than a favorable adaptation. Also, the thick ice that was once there to walk on is too thin to hold the weight of the polar bears any longer. Therefore, swimming has become a very necessary skill for polar bears to have. If the current increase in temperature keeps up or accelerates, there will be no more polar bears. Those who have the genes to be great swimmers will live a bit longer than those who do not possess that gene, but, eventually, all will most likely disappear since evolution takes many generations and there just is not enough time. There are many other species all over the Earth that are in the same sort of predicaments as the polar bears. Plants are having to adapt to differing amounts of rainfall than what is usual in their areas, other animals need to adjust to changing temperatures, and still, others have to deal with their habitats disappearing or changing due to human interference. There is no doubt that global climate change is causing problems and increasing the need for a quicker pace of evolution in order to avoid mass extinctions all over the world.

Classical Criminology vs. Biological Determinism Essay

Classical Criminology vs. Biological Determinism - Essay Example Human beings in his theory are believed to be hedonistic, acting in terms of their own self-interest, they are rational and are capable to consider the course of action that is really in their self-interest. In 'On Crimes and Punishments', Beccaria stays that in just society punishments ought to be proportional to the degree of crime, they ought to bring to mind the crime in the mind of observes, to strengthen the connection in the people's mind between the crime and the punishment. [Beccaria, p. 13-15] Beccaria's Classical Criminology claims that people by their nature are 'selfish and pursue their self-interest; they want to avoid pain and increase their happiness' [Ellis, L. & Walsh, A., p. 17-18] Also they are 'rational, capable of calculating what is really in their self-interest, and therefore can be considered to be free' [Beccaria, p.7-8] Biological determinism, appeared in the 1920s, stays that 'biological factors such as an organism's individual genes completely determine how a system behaves or changes over time'. [Gibson, M., p.34] Considering certain human behavior, for example, committing murder, biological determinism look only at 'innate factors, such as genetic makeup', ignoring non-innate factors, such as social customs and expectations, education, and physical environment. As for the human nature, Lombroso thinks that 'all human behavior is innate and cannot be changed or altered'. The theory of biological determinism claims that 'humans - their appearance, behavior, and even long-term fate - are entirely determined by genes' [Ellis, L. & Walsh, A., p.36]. Biological determinists deny that effects of environmental variables on a gene, and a single mutation can have far-reaching effects on the phenotype. Lombroso also states that everything in a person innate. According to his theory, the criminals cannot be reformed - they were 'born that way', that suggest a kind of defense for the criminal. [Lombroso, C., p.17] Moreover, biological determinism divorces human action from human responsibility, where the blame for actions is placed on the genes exclusively; it also negates the idea of free will entirely, because all behavior is said to be controlled by the genes. Based on the theory of the social contact, Beccaria suggests that 'if people lived without government, their interests would conflict and their lives be that of perpetual war. There would be no secure and hence little happiness'. [Beccaria, C., p.117-119] So that, he continues to think that 'therefore, people agree to give up some of their freedom for the sake of their overall security and happiness' - they make promises not to do some activities, but do others. These promises he calls 'laws', and stays that 'laws are the terms under which independent and isolated men come together in society, in order to enjoy what remains in security and calm' [Beccaria, C., p.39]. Beccaria says that people's behavior need to be controlled by the government with the help of laws, while biological determinism assume that human behavior is governed by the genes, and 'the environment here is not at all important in the determination of appearance, behavior, and functionality'. [Ellis, L. & Walsh, A., p. 76] As for the government, Classical Criminology (Caesar Beccaria, in particular) perceives it as the 'sum' of the individual promises - so that, people have created the government in order to defend their mutual promises by laws and

Internet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Internet - Essay Example , the internet has become as effective as the face-to-face interactions, in providing political knowledge to people, and spurring them to political actions. The internet has influenced the political interactions of different regions of the world. This includes America, the Middle East, Africa, and the other entire world parts. In America, the transformation of politics by the internet was influenced by the 2006 white house and congressional selections. Internet continues to play a political role in the advertising different party candidates, helping in party fund-raising, and the spread of both positive and negative information. In the USA, both Democrats and Republicans have used the internet in their political campaigns. These have made use of their party blogs, candidate blogs, use of e-mail, and the interactive websites to aid their campaign process. This has been efficient in assembling crowds for rallies, raising money for the parties, and increasing the party preference for people. What has accelerated the use of the internet is because it is less costly and yet it is highly efficient, compared to the traditional methods, which a re slow and involving. Howard Dean is known for his use of social media during his campaign for the Democratic Presidential ticket, through MeetUp.com, where he managed to get 190,000 online supporters. Through the internet, Dean was able to raise millions of dollars in a matter of a few weeks. Apart from Dean, McCain also utilized the internet in his campaigns in the year 2000. He raised $6.8 million, and had 40,000 online supporters. This shows that the internet is influential in political interactions today (â€Å"Journalist’s Resource† Web). In the Middle East, there are concerns that the internet highly contributed to the political upheaval in the form of the Arab Spring, which started in 2011. The internet is mainly blamed for influencing negatively the politics in the area, as it has contributed to the sustenance, if not